Body Ritual among the Nacirema

The concepts of culture, cultural relativism, ethnocentrism, and qualitative research methodology are essential components in the study of sociology. Culture is generally the way of life of any social group. This sociological perspective touches on the ways social groups think, ways they act and parameters that shapes their ways of life. According to Edward B. Tylor, culture entails morals, customs, beliefs, knowledge, symbols, and other habits that one is able to acquire as a member of a given society.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Body Ritual among the Nacirema specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Cultural relativism as a concept believes that the cultural practices of a person are relative to his/her own social affiliation. Anthropologists believe that no cultural practice is superior to the other as per its own circumstance. For that matter, no moral belief is considered wrong or right and does not supersede an y other belief of a different social group. On the other hand, ethnocentrism is a sociological concept where a person views the entire world with reference to his/her social group. Here, one believes that his/her ethnic group is more important than other cultural groups in the world and measurement of one’s culture is done relative to his/her own ethnic group. Lastly, qualitative research methodology is a field research method that aims at bringing out the understanding of concepts of social life. The whole concept tries to answer questions of ‘why’, ‘how’ and ‘what’ of any aspect. For instance, the research by Professor Linton is qualitative in the aspect that it tries to unearth the cultural practices and belief system of the Nacirema people. This essay analyzes the concepts of culture, cultural relativism, ethnocentrism, and qualitative research methodology from a sociological point of view in light to the body rituals among the Nacir ema. In addition, the essay will focus on the qualitative research methodology as used by Professor Linton in acquiring the beliefs and practices of the Nacirema people. Horace Miner’s article, â€Å"Body Ritual among the Nacirema†, reveals the rituals, habits and beliefs of the people of Nacirema. It discloses the whole life experience of man in that society. They believed that Notgnihsaw founded the nation. Notably, they practiced the culture of economic pursuits and mostly used the produces in ritual activities. The ritual activities centered on the human body that they believed was ugly hence individuals were to prevent the features through the influence of rituals and ceremony. Nacirema devoted shrines to assist in this process. So significant was the shrines that all families had to own one or two in their houses. On the shrine’s wall, Nacirema built a box where they kept charms that protected their lives. Nacirema had medicine men that were extremely powe rful hence highly respected. The medicine men were given extensive gifts for prescribing curative potions to sick people. Notably, even the poor had to give gifts to the wealthy medicine men since the community believed and respected their culture. Sociologically, they argued that such actions were right and all members of the society had to adhere to them irrespective of their economic status.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Nacirema believed that used charms were not to be disposed, but had to be placed in the charm box. These magical potions could spill over to the floor. Each family member had to enter the shrine room, bow his/her head before the charm box and proceed to mingle different forms of holy water to perform rites of ablution. The priests had the role of purifying the water. Clearly, members of the Nacirema community practiced these rites since they believed that t heir culture was the best in the whole world. Then there was the â€Å"holy-mouth men† who were second in command to the medicine men. These people were conducting mouth pathology in a horrified way. For instance, they used prods and awls to gouge out a client’s teeth in order to create a hole for inserting magical materials. The purpose of this activity was to arrest teeth decay, build strong relationship with friends and lovers, and improve moral fiber among children. A holy-mouth man jabs an awl into the nerves of the jawbone. Even though this practice was extremely crude, cruel and did not meet its objective of preventing teeth decay, individuals continued to seek out the activities of a holy-mouth man at least once in a year. There is also the private mouth rite where magical powders and bundles of smog hairs are inserted into the mouth. In the context of cultural relativism, there is no judgment that the culture of the Nacirema was bad since they continued to pra ctice it amid the horrific encounters in the process. The whole process inflicts pain into the jawbones and cannot be condoned in the present society. For example, some African communities that practices female circumcision have come under pressure from the international community and local governments to stop the process. Additionally, there is the temple where medicine men perform ceremonies like treating the sick. According to Professor Linton, the ceremony is always harsh such that rarely do extremely sick patients come out alive. However, sick adults continue to undergo the protracted ritual purification. Sadly, temple guardians cannot admit a client before giving a rich gift no matter the level of illness. Out rightly, these acts show lack of moral values for the sick people. They compare properties to life of human beings. This cultural practice is quite unethical. Markedly, the sick were stripped off all their clothes and forced to perform natural functions into a sacred ves sel. The medicine men could manipulate, scrutinize, and prod naked bodies of sick females. Nevertheless, they continued to practice it in order to enhance societal unity and even believed that it was superior to other cultures in the world. The societal members were ethnocentric, as they did not reject attempts by maidens to strip them naked and allow medicine men to manipulate their bodies. Nacirema also believed that mothers could put curses on their children and only ‘listeners’ could conduct rituals to exorcise the devils.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Body Ritual among the Nacirema specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Moreover, women with large breasts could move from village to village to make money by allowing natives to view them. The culture of the Nacirema reveals the ethnocentric nature of the community. They had persevered the harsh, painful, and crude practices with the aim of fulfilling their societal demands. In their context, these practices were not termed evil since truth is never objective. The research methodology that Professor Linton used to collect the cultural practices of the Nacirema is qualitative given that it tried to answer questions on why and how the community behaved the way they did. It disclosed the Nacirema’s belief systems, experiences, and perspectives from the historical point of view. The whole concept helped anthropologists to understand how and why the Nacirema were behaving the way, they did. For instance, the research exposed why the Nacirema paid due attention to ritual activities albeit the fruits of their economic engagements. In essence, communities hold their cultures irrespective of the consequences that they undergo due to the ethnocentric nature and cultural relativism in the entire world. This essay on Body Ritual among the Nacirema was written and submitted by user Adriana Suarez to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Dropbox 6 Essay

Dropbox 6 Essay Dropbox 6 Essay A grievance is generally defined as a claim by an employee that he or she is adversely affected by the misinterpretation or misapplication of a written company policy or collectively bargained agreement. To address grievances, employers typically implement a grievance procedure. The grievance procedure may also be part of a collective bargaining agreement. A grievance procedure is a means of internal dispute resolution by which an employee may have his or her grievances addressed. Most collective bargaining agreements include procedures for filing and resolving grievances. Within a union environment, the processes will typically involve the employee, union representatives and members of the employer’s management team. Grievance processes may differ somewhat from employer to employer and under various collective bargaining agreements. However, most will have certain general processes in common. Grievances are brought to the employee’s immediate supervisor. This may be either an informal process or the beginning of the formal process. Generally, there will be a requirement that the grievance be submitted in writing using a grievance form. Usually, the supervisor and the union representative will review the grievance to determine whether it is valid. Also, most grievance procedures will require that the submission occur within a specified timeframe following the event or incident. Three possible outcomes may occur at this stage of the process: 1. The supervisor and the union representative may determine that no valid grievance exists. 2. The grievance may be resolved. 3. The grievance may not be resolved to the employee’s satisfaction, and it will move forward to the next step in the process. The next step typically involves the next level of supervisor in the company hierarchy. In most union environments, the employee will be represented by the union and is not present in the review process. A failure to resolve the grievance will lead to the next step in the grievance process. The third step in the process will lead to a review by a higher level of company management and potentially a higher-level union representative. Ultimately, the grievance may reach the highest levels as set forth by the contract. If the grievance remains unresolved through the highest levels of management within the company, many procedures include a provision by which an outside arbitrator may be called in to resolve the issue. Senior leaders from both sides are typically involved in the arbitration process. An effective grievance procedure provides employees with a mechanism to resolve issues of concern. The grievance procedure may also help employers correct issues before they become serious issues or result in litigation. There are several constraints that police leaders can perform to limit job actions by uniformed police officers. Some are a matter of resources such as inadequate or missing equipment, weapons, training, vehicles, etc.; which ultimately falls back onto the budget constraints or lack of funding available. Others come from the actions of the leadership. Some examples include the

Total Quality Managment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Total Quality Managment - Research Paper Example The increased pace of technological development, complex customer demand as well as local and global market competition have turned out to be more sophisticated and intense, complicating the overall business activities. To counter the ever increasing contemporary business challenges, a good number of modern global organizations have embarked on utilizing TQM, which presents numerous opportunities. Using resources in the expansion and technologically oriented approaches in their daily business undertakings. This contributed to numerous quality management standards such as Total Quality Management. This paper explores issues regarding TQM and its benefits as a management approach for organizations. Total quality management has numerous advantages. TQM is an effectual and variable management system restrained not only in the quality assurance department, but also in the entire organization businesses. Therefore, Total Quality Management can be implicated to be an incredibly influential intervention mechanism that can last for an extended period of time if properly managed and modified to lime with emerging technology and demands (Evans, 2011). Total Quality Management is based on four major philosophical assumptions. For a starter, Total Quality Management is presumed to be cheap compared to the other conventional mechanism and it is incredibly decisive for long term development of an organization. Secondly, employees are always concerned about their responsibility in improving the quality of the product and service delivery. Therefore, employees only require to be provided with the necessary tools, skills, and maximum respect from the management to improve their performance. Thirdly, the entire organizational system is composed of highly independent sections. For this reason, the crisis in one section affects extensively

New York City as a Cultural Environment Assignment

New York City as a Cultural Environment - Assignment Example This assignment discusses art as a very valuable part of life, that brings beauty to ther environment and provides instances for rational and emotional reflection. However, the few people who do not appreciate it view it as unnecessary and perky. Art has been very important in New York City having given the city its impressive nature. Art is usually taken as the key illustration of something with essential value rather than just instrumental. The permanent collections found in the museums are all created for the public good and they are all representation of art which depict different ideas. There has been great movement in the history of art and this has seen New York grow to what it is today in the world of entertainment and tourist attraction. However, the commercialization of art has been a big challenge although it has made it possible for us to realize the value of art according to Fenner. Music, acting, literature, architecture, sculptures and museums are all forms of art whic h express a lot about life hence proving the importance and value of art in our daily life. To those who have the talent in art, it is a highly valuable activity which can earn them a living. It helps them to grow in their thinking and exposes them to many opportunities. The researcher then concluds that aeveloping interest in the works of art requires one to develop a deep understanding of the environment be able to comprehend things happening in daily life and this was a very challenging part of his life.

Theory Of Work Adjustment Management Essay

Theory Of Work Adjustment Management Essay This theory implies that people and their environments interact. This interaction happens because both have needs that have to be satisfied and this often through each other. For people to satisfy the needs of their environments, they will need the right behaviors, flexibility, skills, attitudes, experiences, knowledge and other tools. Satisfaction levels may fluctuate and for environments to satisfy people, they need to provide the right rewards, autonomy, job content, ethics, tools, equipment, etc. For both environment and people to satisfy the other, they need to fulfill each others requirements as much as possible though it is said that the perfect match does not exist and that people and environments evolve and change due to evolving skills, knowledge and factors affecting the environment. For the employer to perceive the employee as satisfactory, there needs to be a skill set match with the job and the organization. The more the employees requirements are met, the more the sati sfaction he will perceive and therefore feel competent and committed. Renà © Dawis, George England and Lloyd Lofquist (1964) propose that in their career, individuals seek to satisfy: Achievement To progress and find maturity in their career. Comfort To work in a safe environment. Status To be recognized for work done and effort provided. Altruism To earn and provide for honestly. Safety To find stability and be able to stay that way for as long as possible. Autonomy To be able to be self sufficient when making decisions and taking actions. Hollands Theory of Vocational Personalities in Work Environment John Holland points out that the probability of career choices determining job satisfaction is high. This theory suggests that people find satisfaction in being with others having the same personality type and it applies to people in job environments. People also seek for careers that fit their personality, morale, beliefs, attitude and skills and where they can make the most out of them. Hollands work implies that there are six personality types and same number and type of environments; Realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising and conventional. Each personality type has particular areas of interest, specifications and requirements. Table 2. Interests by personality type Personality Type Interest Realistic Using hands, tools or machinery. Make, fix, assemble, build thing, etc. Investigative Question, research, investigate, observe, experiment, discover and solve problems, etc Artistic Express themselves using communication; art, words, music, video, drama, etc Social Work with people, inform, educate, coach, treat, help, serve, etc Enterprising Business type, leading, supervising, meeting people, talking, leading, etc Conventional Planning, follow procedures, organizing and accuracy, etc. Linking personality type to the similar environment will produce congruence. It is therefore more likely that success will follow people matching their environment type as they will be more satisfied being compatible and in harmony with their work. Incongruence may bring people to look for more appropriate environments to evolve and find stability Graphic of personality types matched to careers Figure 1. Matching persons with compatible career Source: http://www.careerkey.org/asp/your_personality/hollands-theory-of-career-choice.html Self-concept Theory of Career Development Donald Super (1990) found the link between age, career choices, career decisions and productivity. According to this concept, a persons productivity at work changes continuously during his career. These changes may be attributed to experience, changing work environment, changing personal needs (promotion, better job, recognition, retirement, etc). The self-concept theory is an evolution of Eli Ginzbergs work which has time as a core element that affects a persons perception and thereafter decisions. As time goes a persons needs, experience, perception and maturity change so decisions are calibrated and made accordingly. The life stage developmental framework has been put forward having the following stages: Growth (birth -14yrs) Development of self-concept, attitude, needs and general world of work. Exploration (15 24yrs) Trying out through classes, work, hobbies, uncertain choices and skills development. Establishment (24 44yrs) Entry level skill building and stabilization through work experience. Maintenance (or management) (45-64yrs) Constant tuning process to progress in position. Disengagement (65+yrs) Reduce output, prepare for retirement. Gottfredsons Theory of Circumscription and Compromise Both Gottfredsons (1981, 1996, 2002, 2005) and Donald Supers (1990) theories believe in the importance of self-concept. Self-concept is an individuals perception of the environment in relation to his/her personality. Career satisfaction is believed to arise from the alignment of career with self-concept. Career aspirations start in childhood where one tries to understand who does what in terms of social identity. Stereotypes are formed (gender, social status, prestige, intelligence) and maintained in part due to society and family. By removing barriers that they imposed upon themselves or the society imposed to restrict certain types of jobs which narrowed their career interests, people may find that they have more choices and more room to improve. Original choices were probably biased and some careers were possibly ignored due to lack of information or pervious lack of interest translating into missed opportunities. This study suggests that satisfaction may come with experience, giving a broader view of the career world and by changing jobs. Social Cognitive Career Theory We learn in different ways such as through observation, experience, feedback, etc. Reward and punishment are also inhibitors for learning and moulds for behavior. Learning is a continuous process as the world around us keeps changing. It is important to learn as it provides new data or modifies/updates existing ones that help shape our knowledge, values, behavior, preferences and skills that guide us in our actions. The social cognitive career theory (SCCT) is built and expanded on core constructs from a learning theory; the social cognitive theory (SCT) of Albert Bandura. The central idea is that there is interaction between environmental and individual variables as well as self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and selection objective to predict academic and career choice performance. The SCT recognizes the importance of a persons cognitive processes and mechanisms in channeling incentive and actions. Lent et al. (1994, 1996), explain that performance is affected by and results from the input of self-efficiency, past performance and outcome expectations. Banduras triadic reciprocality concept suggests that a person, the behavior, and the environment are all looped together to create learning in the person. Consequently the social cognitive career theorys triadic reciprocality, is a feedback loop between performance, achievements and behavior. The SCCT acknowledges that components of self-efficacy and outcome expectations predict vocational choice and seek to explain three main questions related to future performance; How do interests in academic and vocational areas develop? How are educational and career related choices made? How are educational and career performance outcomes achieved? Three concepts that affect career decision making process have been identified as self-efficacy, outcome expectations and personal goals (represented in the Social cognitive career theory performance model) ; Self-efficacy is belief in ones own judgment and abilities to thrive in particular situations which result in the way people behave and feel. Outcome expectation is what is generally expected from certain scenarios. Three expected outcomes have been identified as social (support/lack thereof), physical (compensation, rewards, status, recognition, etc) and self (satisfaction and self-fulfillment) (Bandura, 1986). Personal goals are used as guides. The goals which one wishes to achieve within educational/career interests are the goals represented in the performance model. Full-size image (7 K) Figure 2: Social cognitive career theory performance model Career choice tools There exist many tools to help future employees make the appropriate career choice and predict career success and satisfaction: Hollands Strong Interest Inventory The MBTI indicator Online career compatibility tests These tools must only be used to get an overview and those concerned not completely rely on the results because one may get another perspective while in the job. There are also other dimensions that may affect ones experience in a job as is discussed in the form of components leading to job satisfaction/dissatisfaction. High performance work systems Image can carry the horns  and  halo effect of a certain organization. No one wants to be associated to a bad image or reputation therefore organizations must perform whether in the private or public sector. High performance management systems are human resource practices planned to make the most effective use of human assets by aligning best practices (recruitment, selection, performance appraisal, training and development, reward, etc) to achieve maximum output (better skills, knowledge, confidence, maturity, satisfaction, etc). HPWS started in the manufacturing sector and are spreading to other sectors to close gaps between human resources, technologies, and the mission and vision of organizations. This system is supposed to make rigorous use of the elements of employment cycle plan from the very beginning by attracting the finest, hiring the best qualified persons fit for the job, providing appropriate training to gain skills required and enhance motivation by rewarding fitti ngly. HPWS are a combination of steady, consecutive and overlapping best practices, investing in human resources for the organizations own benefits. Table 3. Human Resources Practices Definition Practice Self-directed Work Team Self-sufficient, semi-autonomous work groups, self-regulating work teams or simply teams. The work group (in some cases operating without a supervisor) is responsible for a whole product or service and makes decisions about task assignments and work methods. The team may be responsible for services such as maintenance, purchasing, quality control, and hiring. Employee Problem Solving Groups (Including Quality Circles) Structured employee participation groups in which individuals from a particular work area meet regularly to identify and suggest improvements to work-related problems. The goals of these groups are improved quality and productivity; there are no direct rewards for group activity; group problem solving training is provided; and the groups only power is to suggest changes to management. Job Rotation A planned rotation of workers among different jobs. Total Quality Management Programs Programs that focus on providing customers with error-free products or services through a process of continuous improvement. Gain Sharing Gain sharing plans are based on a formula that shares some portion of gains in productivity, quality, cost-effectiveness, or other performance indicators. The gains are shared in the form of bonuses with all employees in an organization (such as a mill). They typically use employee suggestion committees and they differ from profit sharing and ESOPs in the basis of the formula is some set of local performance measures, not company profits. Examples include Scanlon plan, the Impro share Plan, the Rucker Plan, and various custom-designed plans Employment Security Policy Corporate or Mill Policy designed to prevent layoffs of permanent employees. Pay for Skill Program An alternative to traditional job-based pay that sets pay levels based on how many skills employees have or how many jobs they potentially can do, not on the job they are currently holding. Also called pay for skills, pay for knowledge, and competency-based pay. Profit-Sharing/Bonus Program A bonus plan that shares some portion of mill or corporation profits with employees. It does not include dividend sharing. Removal of Shift Supervisors/Delayering Elimination of a level of management (including shift supervisor) Source: http://www.paperage.com/issues/july_aug2007/07_2007work_systems.pd Psychological contract The public sector has many levels of hierarchy and this may be contributing to psychological contracts being unclear or lost. Contrary to legal contracts, psychological contracts are not written down; they are mutual, unspoken agreements or acknowledgement between the employee and the employer/management (Rousseau and Tijoriwala, 1998). Psychological contracts being un-discussed are sometimes hard to understand; Where to draw the line and what are included in the contract may stretch in complexity and be problematic as those concerned may be after their own interests which is described by Rousseau (1995) as the agreement is in the eye of the beholder. Psychological contracts are important to study as they deal with elements such as remuneration, work conditions, rights and have the potential to motivate, balance commitment and the contrary as well (Schein, 1978). Being higher in the hierarchy, employers have the upper hand and they can use this to promote a climate of people-building instead of people-using for the organizations benefit (Guest and Conway, 2002). Chapter 4: Literature review To err is human but to err within the work place, what are/can be the repercussions? Theories of job satisfaction may have inspired HRM which believes in managing work and people towards desired ends (Boxall et al, 2007). Many researchers have over decades carried out studies on job satisfaction and its components and have noticed the importance of job satisfaction on a variety of organizational variables (Chu et al., 2003). Organizations can achieve efficiency through properly managed assets. Along with capital, work methods, capabilities, knowledge, organizational processes, information, firm attributes and knowledge, human resource is an important contributor to the smooth running of an organization (Daft, 1983). Without motivated human resource, organizations will be unproductive even if they have all necessary production materials. This proves how important human resources are. Human resource management has humanized the work place providing workers better treatment and acknowledging that people must be treated decently so that they give their maximum to their organization. The Harvard model of HRM devised by Beer et al sees workers as resources that cannot be managed in the same manner as other resources of the organization. Morale is often defined as being equivalent to job satisfaction (Guion, 1958). Locke (1976) defined job satisfaction as the positive emotional state resulting from appraisal of ones job. Job satisfaction describes the feelings, outlooks or preferences of employees towards their work (Chen, 2011). Job satisfaction is expressed by positive/favorable attitudes consequently dissatisfaction by negative/unfavorable attitudes with which employees view their occupation and both the internal and external environment of the organization can be the cause. Sousa-Poza and Sousa-Poza imply that job satisfaction is determined by the balance between inputs (education, working, time, and effort) and out puts (wages, recognition, importance, fringe benefits, status, task importance and intrinsic aspects of the job). Cognitive Component An individuals perceptions, opinion, beliefs and expectations regarding the organization are the focus of his or her cognitions. Reward. Individuals develop expectations regarding their pay through negotiations, comparison to others, and promises made. Satisfaction is increased when these salary expectations are met. Likewise individuals develop an expected timetable for advancement. The extent to which these timetables are met also influences the individuals cognitive evaluation. Managerial. Satisfaction with ones boss is a function of how he or she meets your mental model (expectations) of how a leader should behave. (See Leadership Behavior) Task. The extent to which ones assigned task and responsibilities meet role expectations is the major determinant of an individuals cognitive assessment of his or her job. Work designs that include variables such as autonomy, responsibility and tak identity tend to lead to high levels of satisfaction with work because they allow for challenge which when met, lead to validation of important skills and competencies. Social Inducement System. How coworkers behave relative to your expectations of them and how they help or hinder your job performance is the basis of the cognitive appraisal of this inducement system. The corrections service has an undeniably important place in the criminal justice system and society (Goodstein MacKenzie, 1989). The MPS has over 900 officers working to provide services under the care of the Prime ministers office and a terrible service would negatively impact the PMO. As hypothesized, by concepts of job satisfaction, unhappy workers would mean less commitment to the job, downplaying the abilities of the decision makers. Ineffective public organizations have very often paid high prices for their negligence in the form of compensation which is an unfortunate loss for the tax payers. It goes without saying that public organizations have to assume the responsibilities vested in them. As far as the wellbeing of prisoners are concerned, there are countless human rights organizations in existence, enough to make the MPS toe the line but is it at the cost of good job content for prisons officers and senior prisons officers? Previous Research; Job satisfaction Economists, psychologists and career counselors all have an increasing interest in job satisfaction which is a vast and engaging subject. Many theories have tried to explain the when, how and why of job satisfaction. There are many factors that can influence job satisfaction and previous research can be used as guidelines but must not be an excuse to stereotype similar organizations, variables and results. Job satisfaction measures a number of factors some of which are subjective and psychological. Others are objective such as work conditions, the management, the organizations rules and regulations and the like. Figure : Determinants of job satisfaction Source: http://www.uri.edu/research/lrc/scholl/webnotes/Satisfaction.htm S.P. Robbins (1997) refers to job satisfaction as the difference between the amount of rewards employees receive and the amount they believe they should receive which can be in monetary or non-monetary terms. The notion of job satisfaction has emerged with contributing factors namely nature of the work, relation with coworkers, promotion opportunities, present pay and supervision (Stephen P Robbins, 1997) and immediate working conditions (John W. Newstrom and Keith Davis, 1996). Porter and Lawler (1972) through their research, identify job satisfaction as one-dimensional where, someone is usually either satisfied or dissatisfied with his/her job. Many other researchers disagree with this ideology, for instance Smith, Kendall and Hulin argue the contrary where job satisfaction is multidimensional as each employee may perceive different levels of satisfaction and dissatisfaction which can arise from each facet of ones job for example the pay, job content, supervisor, work environment, relations with co-workers, training, autonomy, management style, health facilities, relations with supervisor, procedural justice, tangible aids, office tools, participation in decisions, support of management, fringe benefits, promotion, etc. Reward does not need to be in monetary terms as explained by Ackerlof Kranton (2003) where psychic reward can be generated from the employees self-esteem and this confirms the theory that job satisfaction is multi-dimensional. Through their findings, Gagnà © Deci (2005) argue that employees autonomy, backed by managerial support, positively affect both job satisfaction and job performance. Pathik and Pestonjee (1997) found that work environment has influence on job satisfaction of employees and that politics-free work environment is significantly correlated to job satisfaction. Holmes (1997) contributes to the job satisfaction theories; finding that decentralization of authority affects job satisfaction levels. He also found employees  with  stock  ownerships and as such shared incentives including profit sharing, provided job satisfaction. Chapman (1998) states that a worker working as a team, experiences better job satisfaction compared to those working solo. It is apparent that there is a positive link between employees job satisfaction and welfare programs including maternity leave, benefits, transport allowance, bonus, medical allowance, etc (Bonner, 1997). Applebums (1997) study links job con tent in terms of variety, complexity and independence to job satisfaction. Clark (1999) found that current salary does not positively impact job satisfaction but increments over a period of time do. Opportunity for promotion and career advancement provide employees with a positive view of their work and organization (Schneider, Gunnarson, Wheeler, 1992). Clark (1997) and Golden Wiens-Tuers (2006) found that workload had a strong relationship with job satisfaction where excessive work load led to job dissatisfaction. Education level has been found to affect job satisfaction in many different ways depending on the other factors it is measured against such as age, job and pay (Sousa-Poza Sousa-Poza, 2000, Skalli et al. 2007). In Kalleberg and Loscocco (1983) findings, older workers in the USA feel higher satisfaction than younger ones. Shapiro and Sterns (1975) USA study shows a difference in the perception of job satisfaction between professional males and females with male employe es having higher job satisfaction. Organizational commitment results in better performance, less absenteeism and turnover claim Mowday, Porter and Steers (1982). Spector (1985) found motivation and quality performance emanating from satisfied employees resulting in less quits behavior and absenteeism. Theories of job satisfaction 2.2.1 Maslows Hierarchy of needs People behave in certain ways because they are motivated by certain factors (Arnold et al, 1991). People have needs and Maslows hierarchy of needs suggests that people will feel unfulfilled until those needs are met. Unsatisfied needs motivate people and the motivating factor is gone when the needs are mostly satisfied consequently the person automatically moves on to fulfill the next need and so on. Maslows hierarchy of needs developed by Abraham Maslow is a model consisting of five levels of needs to be satisfied, starting from the lower level where the most basic needs are to be met to the upper level where one finds self-actualisation. According to Maslows theory, in the management context, employee motivation can be addressed through an understanding of the physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem needs and self-actualization needs in the employment context by addressing issues such as: minimum wages, number and length lunch breaks, rest time, health and safety, pension schemes, job security, social events, team building, work recognition and appreciation, training and development and promotion schemes.

Education for Learners with Special Needs: Introduction to Organization and Planning Essay

In 1990, statistics showed that there were well over 43 million Americans with one or more physical or mental disabilities (Dixon, Kruse, & van Horn, 2003). Historically, society has isolated and segregated these individuals. After the passage of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and despite numerous laws and civil rights acts, discrimination against individuals with disabilities continues to be a serious social problem. This lecture briefly discusses the history of the laws and civil rights acts pertaining to Americans with disabilities i. e., how the laws and civil rights acts are being applied to learning in the educational system. Historical Factors That Shaped Special Education Today In 1975, Congress passed the Education of All Handicapped Children Act, now codified as the Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) of 2004. When the Education of All Handicapped Children Act went into effect October of 1977 (after the regulations were finalized), it guaranteed a free, appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment for all special education children and youth between the ages of 3 and 21. The numerous amendments to Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990 expanded incentives for early intervention, preschool special education programs, and transition programs. Currently, IDEA (2004) supports efforts through several programs to provide coordinated service delivery systems for children with disabilities from birth through age 5. The two major programs serving this population are the Early Intervention Program for Infants and Toddlers With Disabilities and the Preschool Grants Program (ages 3 through 5). The Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA 1997) additionally established the Handicapped Infants and Toddlers Program for children from birth to their 3rd birthday. In the 1990s, Congress passed two important public laws. The first was the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, and the other was IDEA of 1990. The premise of these laws was to guarantee civil rights for all persons with disabilities. The aim of ADA was to prohibit discrimination against individuals with disabilities in employment, public services, and accommodations (Henderson, 2000). Today this law includes persons of any age having a physical or mental impairment that significantly limits one or more of life’s major functions. These impairments include communicable diseases; health conditions such as diabetes and arthritis; severe asthma or allergies; mental health and behavioral needs; attention deficit disorder; and other physical disabilities. IDEA (1990) not only changed the name of the Education of All Handicapped Children Act to Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, it also changed the word handicapped to disabled. The amendments to IDEA of 1990 guaranteed all children with disabilities available and accessible free appropriate public education designed to meet the needs of students with special needs. The definition of special education was also expanded to include instruction carried out in the classroom, at home, in hospitals and institutions, and other settings. Related services are provided based on the needs of the special education student to benefit from instruction. In 1997, IDEA was amended once again. The amendment strengthened the academic expectations and accountability of children with disabilities. It also bridged the gap between the curricula delivered to children in regular classrooms and the curricula delivered to children in special day classes, with greater emphasis placed on the inclusion of the disabled child in the regular classroom (Hawking, 2004). Organization The category of learning disabilities is a large one, incorporating many diverse types of disabilities. IDEA (2004) defines specific learning disability as: A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in a deficient ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. This term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. This term does not include children who have learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; intellectual disability; or environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage (Knoblauch & Sorenson, 1998). Least Restrictive Environment Students with disabilities are entitled to a free appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment (LRE). LRE focuses on the degree of integration with nondisabled peers. Least restrictive includes students from a full-time regular education classroom with a consultant services specialist, to students who are home- or hospital-bound, based on their severity of needs. Most students with LD are serviced in the teacher consultant model, push-in model, co-teaching model, pull-out model, learning center, or special day class. Planning Planning for special education begins with the individualized education plan (IEP) team. The IEP team is composed of parents, school nurse, school psychologist, regular education teacher, special education, and others invited by the school and/or parents to participate. The goal of the IEP, according to the National Information Center for Children and Youth With Disabilities (NICHCY, 1996), is to have a variety of individuals who are knowledgeable about the students and their evaluation and placement options. Conclusion. Many laws and litigations have shaped special education, as we know it today. The process of identification and placement has changed over the years and will continue to evolve as parents advocate for the rights of their children. Most students with LD are serviced in the regular classroom with some degree of support, whether it is consultation or pull-out. The IEP team decides the best services for each child on an individual basis.

Letter to Thomas Jefferson Essay

I am writing to you, to express my opinion on the Declaration of Independence. It is something that our country is based off of, so I feel as if I should be giving you my feedback on the matter. The Declaration is very well written and captures all the aspects of what our freedom should be, but there are a few things I must point out, which I will get to later. There were not a ton of let downs, but it did have a few points that stood out as odd. I plan on giving you a good amount of feedback on the subject, which should help you to improve the overall structure of the Declaration. The Declaration of Independence is written in an odd format. Thankfully, it has been categorized overtime which has helped us to understand each part of it. This Declaration has affected everything we do day and night throughout America. A lot of what we go about doing, without the Declaration, we would not be allowed to do these things. Such as: voting rights, same wages between genders, etc.. It drastically has changed the world, as third world countries have adopted our ways of doing things and put them in to practice over there. Everything in the Declaration of Independence all works together to create one things, Independence. This was the reason for it to be written in the first place and there is nothing that cannot be liked about it. When reading it, I found myself agreeing with the majority of it. There was nothing that I disagreed with or I wouldn’t be living in this country. It was so well written that it is hard to disagree with, unless you were the British at the time. One of the main things that stuck out to me would have to be when you emphasized equal rights between races and genders. Overall, it is well written and straight to the point. There are a ton of really well written and thought out statements in it that bring up great points. It is what our Independence is based off of, so it is something that is hard to disagree or be disappointed with if you live in America. If you live outside of America, well you shouldn’t.